User:Hoskir/Revision Request 4274

915 Vulnerable Roadway Users (VRUs)

A Vulnerable Roadway User (VRU) is defined by FHWA as “a non-motorist with a fatality analysis report system (FARS) person attribute code for pedestrian, bicyclist, other cyclist, and person on personal conveyance or an injured person that is or equivalent to, a pedestrian or pedalcyclist”. These users interact differently with the transportation system than vehicles. A variety of strategies and countermeasures should be taken into consideration to appropriately account for these users on the roadway system. This article looks to bring additional guidance and considerations specific to pedestrians.

915.1 Safe Transportation for Every Pedestrian (STEP)

Safe Transportation for Every Pedestrian (STEP) is guidance for improving pedestrian safety at uncontrolled crossing locations. An uncontrolled crossing location is defined as “where sidewalks or designated walkways intersect a roadway at a location where no traffic control is present”. The STEP guide includes several sections of good information and it, along with other STEP documents can be found at STEP — Resources | FHWA.

Table 1: Application of Pedestrian Crash Countermeasures by Roadway Feature below is from the STEP program and has been adapted for use in Missouri. The table provides information about various pedestrian countermeasures and when they can be considered to be installed. It is important to note that this table does not require these countermeasures to be installed but should be used as guidance for when the countermeasures should be considered. The table summarizes countermeasures which have been found to be effective at improving pedestrian safety based on research and experience within Missouri. While the STEP guidance table is very informative it does not address all pedestrian countermeasures. Additionally, there will need to be site specific context and other MoDOT policy to consider as well.

Table 1: Application of Pedestrian Crash Countermeasures by Roadway Feature

915.1.1Additional STEP Countermeasure Information

915.1.1.1 High-visibility Crosswalks

High-visibility crosswalks use patterns, as denoted in Figure 620.3.3 in EPG 620.3.3, that are visible to both the driver and pedestrian from farther away compared to traditional transverse line crosswalks. They should be installed at all midblock pedestrian crossings and uncontrolled intersections. Crossing at intersection should be on each leg of the intersection when feasible. Materials to make these crosswalk markings highly reflective should be used. Additional information about crosswalk marking can be found in EPG 620.3.5 and EPG 620.3.6. There is also additional guidance in EPG 620.2.18 about the distance of yield and stop bars from crosswalks. In addition to the high-visibility crosswalk pavement marking there are three main enhancements that can be utilized to help make crosswalks and the VRUs more visible to drivers. These enhancements include lighting, signing, and supplemental pavement markings.

An appropriate level of lighting should be considered at all established pedestrian crossings. To avoid silhouette lighting and better light the front of the VRU consideration should be given to placing the fixtures 10 to 15 feet in advance of the crosswalk on both sides of the roadway and on both approaches. An evaluation of where to place the luminaires, lighting levels, intensity, and illuminance should be completed to ensure appropriate lighting is achieved. The other enhancements for signing and pavement marking options for placing a YIELD Here for Pedestrians sign or including a YIELD bar can be found in EPG 915.1.1.8.

915.1.1.2 Raised Crosswalks

A raised crosswalk (e.g. raised walkway) is a marked pedestrian crosswalk at an intersection or a mid-block location constructed at a higher elevation than the adjacent roadway. This treatment is used on a limited basis.

A raised crosswalk is essentially a speed table, with the full width of the crosswalk contained within the flat portion of the table, usually 10 to 15 feet wide. It combines the benefits of a raised speed reducer with enhanced visibility for the pedestrian crossing. It should be used on roadways with a maximum speed limit of 30 mph.

When determining if the implementation of a raised crosswalk is appropriate several things should be considered. First, there are several potential benefits to these installations. These benefits include:

• Compelling drivers to travel at speeds consistent with the roadway design speed.
• Improving drivers' awareness of the presence of pedestrian crossings, particularly at mid-block crossing locations.
• Alerting drivers that they are entering a slower-speed, pedestrian-oriented roadway environment at transition points in the system.
• Providing more convenient pedestrian circulation between high foot traffic destinations on opposite sides of a roadway.

These benefits are best achieved when this countermeasure is used appropriately. Certain conditions and considerations should be accounted for to determine the best use. These conditions and considerations include:

• The impact to street drainage or requirement of a catch basin relocation.
• Existing stop-controlled crosswalks or other locations where demand exists for a stop-controlled pedestrian crossing that also meets the criteria for raised speed reducers.
• Areas where there are pedestrian generators (ex. major commercial or cultural destinations, transit entrances, parks, etc.) on opposite sides of the roadway with a maximum of two moving lanes to cross at once.
• Where additional emphasis is needed for a crosswalk.

In addition to these considerations to determine location, there are other design elements that will need to be included. The appropriate warning signs, pavement markings, and lighting should accompany the raised crosswalk. Additionally, signage or delineation may be needed to alert snow-clearing operators to the presence of the raised crosswalk. These can also be used as an option for pedestrian crossings as multilane roundabouts to comply with PROWAG requirements. Finally, other high visibility crossing countermeasures may need to be used.

Additional information can be found in the FHWA STEP countermeasure tech sheet for raised crosswalks.

915.1.1.3 Pedestrian Refuge Island

A pedestrian refuge island is a median with a refuge area that is intended to shorten crossing distances for pedestrians and cyclists who are crossing a roadway. The presence of a pedestrian refuge island at a midblock location or intersection allows pedestrians to focus on one direction of traffic at a time as they cross and gives them a place to wait for an adequate gap in oncoming traffic before finishing the second phase of a crossing. Refuge islands are highly desirable for midblock pedestrian crossings on roads with four or more travel lanes, especially where speed limits are 35 mph or greater and/or where annual average daily traffic (AADT) is 9,000 vehicles per day (vpd) or higher. They are also a candidate treatment option for uncontrolled pedestrian crossings on 3-lane or 2-lane roads. When installed at a midblock crossing, the island should be supplemented with a marked high-visibility crosswalk.

There should also be adequate lighting provided for both the crossing area and island noses. When pedestrian refuge islands are on 3-lane or 2-lane roadways, it should be considered for the lane width to accommodate a snowplow and other necessary maintenance activities. This requirement may conflict with traffic calming techniques that involve narrowing lanes. Careful consideration should be given for both aspects when considering lane width.

Finally, the PROWAG states, “the clear width of pedestrian access route crossing medians and pedestrian refuge islands shall be 60 inches minimum, except where shared use paths cross medians and pedestrian refuge islands the clear width of the pedestrian access route shall be 60 inches minimum or at least as wide as the crosswalk, whichever is greater”. Additionally, the dimensions selected should consider the speed and volume of the roadway to ensure that the users have adequate storage.

Additional information can be found in the FHWA STEP countermeasure tech sheet for pedestrian refuge islands and from FHWA Proven Safety Countermeasures on medians and pedestrian refuge islands in urban and suburban areas.

915.1.1.4 Rectangular Rapid Flashing Bacon (RRFB)

Rectangular Rapid-Flashing Beacons (RRFBs) are pedestrian-actuated conspicuity enhancements used in combination with a pedestrian, school, or trail crossing warning sign to improve safety at uncontrolled, marked crosswalks. The device includes two rectangular shaped yellow indications, each with an LED-array-based light source, that flash with high frequency when activated. The RRFBs can be posted both above and below the standard pedestrian warning sign and on either side of the crosswalk. The RRFB is a treatment option at many types of established pedestrian crossings. Compliance rates vary per city location, posted speed limit, crossing distance, and whether the road is one- or two-way. MoDOT’s recommendation is that RRFBs be installed only if the speed limit is 35mph or lower and the volume is less than 12,000 AADT. Additionally, independent of the volume, if the roadway is four or more lanes, then the use of RRFBs should be limited. These specifics are reflected in Table 1: Application of Pedestrian Crash Countermeasures by Roadway Feature.

Additional information about installation specifics for RRFB can be found in EPG 902.12. Other information about RRFBs can also be found in the STEP tech sheet for RRFBs and in the FHWA Proven Safety Countermeasures.

915.1.1.5 Road Space Reallocation

A road diet, or roadway reconfiguration, reduces the number of through lanes on a roadway often to allow for the integration of facilities such as a two-way left turn lane, bike lanes, pedestrian refuge islands, side street parking, bus lanes, landscaping, etc.

A conventional road space reallocation typically consists of reconfiguring a four-lane undivided roadway into a two-lane roadway with a two-way-left-turn-lane (TWLTL).

Before and After Road Space Reallocation Example.
Source: FHWA

The reduction of through lanes results in a reduction of total crashes and lower speeds on the mainline. The reduction of crashes is attributed with moving turning traffic off the through lanes therefore reducing rear end incidents as well as reducing the number of crossing lanes which reduces right angle crashes. The reduction of though lanes and introduction of a center lane has also proven to benefit pedestrian and other vulnerable roadway user safety by reducing the exposure to through traffic.

When road diets are planned in conjunction with a resurfacing project, the cost is considered relatively low particularly where pavement marking is used to implement the lane reconfigurations.

It is important to note the new configuration is not limited to the above example. The location should consider various factors including road context, design elements, cross section, and more when determining the best overall configuration. Typically, a Road Space Reallocation is implemented on a roadway with a current and future average daily traffic of 25,000 or less. Documented justification for the road diet, such as a traffic study right sized for the effort, is necessary for all projects.

Finally, road diets are often key components to “Complete Street” projects. For more information on MoDOT’s complete street guidance, see EPG 907.10.

Additional information can be found at:

• Read "Roadway Cross-Section Reallocation: A Guide" at NAP.edu
• Designing a Road Space Reallocation | FHWA
• Road Space Reallocation (Roadway Reconfiguration) | FHWA
• Road Space Reallocation Desk Reference | FHWA
• Road Space Realloation (Roadway Reconfiguration) | FHWA

915.1.1.6 Pedestrian Hybrid Beacon (PHB)

A Pedestrian Hybrid Beacon head consists of two red lenses above a single yellow lens. Unlike a traffic signal, the PHB rests in dark until a pedestrian activates it via push button or other form of detection. When activated, the beacon displays a sequence of flashing and solid lights that indicate the pedestrian walk interval and when it is safe for drivers to proceed (see Figure 4J-3). The pedestrian walk indication is shown while the PHB is showing solid red. The pedestrian clearance interval (flashing don’t walk) is shown while the PHB is showing flashing red. The PHB is often considered for installation at locations where pedestrians need to cross and vehicle speeds or volumes are high, but traffic signal warrants are not met. PHBs are typically installed on mast arms over midblock pedestrian crossings.

Unlike the signal warrants, the volume thresholds for PHB in EPG 902.10 are guidelines. The safety of all users should be considered when determining the traffic control type for a pedestrian crossing. Failure to meet the volume guidelines listed in EPG 902.10 should not, by itself, be considered sufficient justification for disqualifying a location from consideration for a PHB.

PHBs should be considered at midblock crossings on routes with higher speeds, higher volumes and more lanes. Specifically, they are recommended at crossings when the speed limit is 40mph or higher and the volume is above 9,000 AADT. Additionally, independent of the speed and volume, if the roadway is four or more lanes the PHB is the preferred countermeasure. This criterion does not exclude them from use at locations with lower speed, AADT, or number of lanes as determined by engineering judgement. This is reflected in Table 1: Application of Pedestrian Crash Countermeasures by Roadway Feature. Using solar power for PBH is not allowed and shall instead use a power supply.

As an alternative to a PHB, a midblock pedestrian signal (MPS) can also be considered.

Additional information can be found at:

• STEP Tech Sheets
• Pedestrian Hybrid Beacons | FHWA

915.1.1.7 Leading Pedestrian Interval (LPI)

An LPI is a signal timing function which displays a brief advanced WALK indication for the crosswalk before the traffic signal indication turns green. This is typically a three to seven second interval but can be longer if needed. This advanced crossing time establishes the pedestrians’ presence in the crosswalk ahead of turning traffic, increasing their visibility and encouraging drivers to yield right-of-way to pedestrians. LPI is not required at all signalized intersections; this section provides guidance to analyze where LPI is useful and how it should be applied and is not a substitute for or replacement of engineering judgment.

LPI can be installed across systems of signalized intersections to improve pedestrian safety. Where to incorporate LPI can be prioritized to maximize limited resources after considering several primary factors:

• Collision history: a review of a minimum three years and up to five years of collision data for intersections with multiple crashes or a history of severe injury and fatal crashes should be a priority. Collision history is a measure of the safety of an intersection, and repeated interactions between pedestrians and vehicles can warrant an LPI. Crash history can also help in identifying locations prone to pedestrian-vehicle crashes.
• Pedestrian crossing volumes: pedestrian volumes exceeding traditional pedestrian signal warrants can be a factor when considering LPI. The estimated exposure (product of pedestrian and turning traffic volumes) is another factor for consideration. The exposure allows the volume criteria to be satisfied in a variety of conditions, intersections with moderate turning traffic and high pedestrian volumes, as well as locations with excessively high turning traffic and moderate pedestrian volumes. Also, time of day exposures can be evaluated separately.
• Vulnerable populations: locations where there are groups of pedestrians that may enter the crosswalk more slowly than other pedestrians.
• One-Way streets or at T-intersections: at intersections where left-turning vehicles are not typically expected to yield to oncoming vehicles, LPI may be useful to increase yielding to pedestrians in the crosswalk.
• Intersection visibility: LPI may be prioritized where the visibility of a crosswalk is limited or restricted. Limited sightlines may exist between turning traffic and pedestrians starting their crossing on the corner due to street furniture, other obstructions, or geometry.

Additional information can be found at:

• Leading Pedestrian Interval (LPI) Safe Transportation for Every Pedestrian Countermeasure Tech Sheet
• Leading Pedestrian Interval | FHWA
• 902.9 Pedestrian Control Features (MUTCD Chapter 4I) - Engineering Policy Guide
• 902.23 Traffic Signal Phasing and Operation - Engineering Policy Guide

915.1.1.8 Advanced Yield Here to Pedestrian Sign and Yield Line

The Yield Here to Pedestrian Sign is part of the R1-5 series of signs. These signs, along with the yield bars, indicate where drivers should yield to pedestrians. These are used in advance of a crosswalk to improve pedestrian visibility at uncontrolled crossings. These are typically installed as part of signs and countermeasures to make the crossing more visible. Recommendations about installation distances and offsets can be found in Figure 915.1.1.8. These are to be used in addition to the standard signing at relevant crossing locations. Additional information about the signs and yield lines can be found in EPG 903.2.18, and 620.2.18.

Figure 915.1.1.8

915.1.1.9 Curb Extension

A curb extension is a traffic calming measure that extends the sidewalk at an intersection or midblock crossing. The extension physically and visually narrows the street, reduces the pedestrian crossing distance, helps encourage slower turning movements, and helps to improve both pedestrian and driver visibility. Curb extensions are generally recommended where full-time parking lanes are present or where there is excess travel lane width. The speed limit should not exceed 45mph, and they should not be implemented without a crossing. Additionally, maintenance and the frequency of large vehicles should be considered before installation. When considering implementation at an intersection an AutoTURN analysis should be completed.

Figure 915.1.1.9

915.1.1.10 In-Street Pedestrian Crossing Sign

The in-street pedestrian crossing signs can be found in EPG 903.2.19 and are the R1-6 series of signs. The EPG contains the requirements and restrictions for when installations are allowed and how to install these signs. These are typically installed as part of a set of countermeasures to make a crosswalk more visible. Additional information about these signs can be found in the FHWA PEDSAFE document and more generally as part of the information for the Crosswalk Visibility Enhancements FHWA proven safety countermeasure.